Behavioral control is one’s perception of internal or external controls constraining the behavior in question. [1] Bacharach, S. B. Innovation adoption also depends on personal factors such as the adopter’s risk- taking propensity, education level, cosmopolitanism, and communication influence. Explanations can be idiographic or nomothetic. Without logic, propositions will be ad hoc, arbitrary, and meaningless, and cannot be tied into a cohesive “system of propositions” that is the heart of any theory. Innovation diffusion theory. While classical positivist research in criminology seeks generalized causes of criminal behaviors, such as poverty, lack of education, psychological conditions, and recommends strategies to rehabilitate criminals, such as by providing them job training and medical treatment, GDT focuses on the criminal decision making process and situational factors that influence that process. For instance, a doctor may employ the central route for diagnosing and treating a medical ailment (by virtue of his or her expertise of the subject), but may rely on peripheral cues from auto mechanics to understand the problems with his car. Scientific theories are different from theological, philosophical, or other explanations in that scientific theories can be empirically tested using scientific methods. All theories which are selected are used in the courses of communication studies. (1989). As noted earlier, scientific research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane and an empirical plane. It explains how individuals can be influenced to change their attitude toward a certain object, events, or behavior and the relative efficacy of such change strategies. Government of Jersey General Hospital: Consultants in Psychiatry – Various posts, Martlets Hospice: Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Isle of Wight NHS Trust: Consultant Physician in Stroke Medicine, The Mid Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust : Consultant in Emergency Medicine (Post 2), Women’s, children’s & adolescents’ health. In contrast, explanations require causations , or understanding of cause-effect relationships. Elaboration likelihood is a situational characteristic and not a personal trait. First, theories provide the underlying logic of the occurrence of natural or social phenomenon by explaining what are the key drivers and key outcomes of the target phenomenon and why, and what underlying processes are responsible driving that phenomenon. Data, facts, and findings operate at the empirical or observational level, while theories operate at a conceptual level and are based on logic rather than observations. Theories such as interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory can be used to help design a research question, guide the selection of relevant data, interpret the data, and propose explanations of causes or influences. Other editions 1983, 1996, 2005. Theories are explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. [3] Markus, M. L. (1987). Knowledge is constructed from multiple perspectives. I formulated the first research question in order to identify the most influential theories and models used in the research into ICT implementation and adoption during the years 1999-2010. In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganises information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones. Finally, all theories are constrained by assumptions about values, time, and space, and boundary conditions that govern where the theory can be applied and where it cannot be applied. Nevertheless, all constructs must have clear and unambiguous operational definition that should specify exactly how the construct will be measured and at what level of analysis (individual, group, organizational, etc.). Agency Theory. Constructs are conceptualized at the theoretical plane, while variables are operationalized and measured at the empirical (observational) plane. Conceptual framework A conceptual framework includes one or more formal theories (in part or whole) as well as other … Note that the following represents just a simplistic introduction to these Note that it is possible to predict events or behaviors using a set of predictors, without necessarily explaining why such events are taking place. To that end, “target hardening” such as installing deadbolts and building self-defense skills, legal deterrents such as eliminating parole for certain crimes, “three strikes law” (mandatory incarceration for three offenses, even if the offenses are minor and not worth imprisonment), and the death penalty, increasing the chances of apprehension using means such as neighborhood watch programs, special task forces on drugs or gang -related crimes, and increased police patrols, and educational programs such as highly visible notices such as “Trespassers will be prosecuted” are effective in preventing crimes. Furthermore, observing certain patterns of events will not necessarily make a theory, unless the researcher is able to provide consistent explanations for the observed patterns. In the peripheral route, subjects rely on external “cues” such as number of prior users, endorsements from experts, or likeability of the endorser, rather than on the quality of arguments, in framing their attitude towards the target object. Internal controls may include the person’s ability to perform the intended behavior (self-efficacy), while external control refers to the availability of external resources needed to perform that behavior (facilitating conditions). The researcher then c… For example, many economic theories assume that human beings are rational (or boundedly rational) and employ utility maximization based on cost and benefit expectations as a way of understand human behavior. For example, to study doctor-nurse interactions on medical wards, various theories can provide insights into different aspects of hospital and ward cultures. As such, the theory has widespread implications about how to enact attitude change toward new products or ideas and even social change. The goal of agency theory is to specify optimal contracts and the conditions under which such contracts may help minimize the effect of goal incongruence. Two utilitarian philosophers of the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, formulated General Deterrence Theory (GDT) as both an explanation of crime and a method for reducing it. Previous articles in this series have addressed several methodologies used in qualitative research. Complexity is negatively correlated to innovation adoption, while the other four factors are positively correlated. The concept was first studied by French sociologist Gabriel Tarde, but the theory was developed by Everett Rogers in 1962 based on observations of 508 diffusion studies. IDT has been criticized for having a “pro-innovation bias,” that is for presuming that all innovations are beneficial and will be eventually diffused across the entire population, and because it does not allow for inefficient innovations such as fads or fashions to die off quickly without being adopted by the entire population or being replaced by better innovations. The cumulative adoption pattern therefore an S-shaped curve, as shown in Figure 4.3, and the adopter distribution represents a normal distribution. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change . Access this article for 1 day for:£30 / $37 / €33 (excludes VAT). Theories Absorptive capacity theory Actor network theory Accountability theory Adaptive structuration theory Administrative behavior, theory of Agency theory Argumentation theory Behavioral decision theory Belief Action Outcome Hence, a criminal’s personal situation (such as his personal values, his affluence, and his need for money) and the environmental context (such as how protected is the target, how efficient is the local police, how likely are criminals to be apprehended) play key roles in this decision making process. Postulated by Azjen (1991) [5] , the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a generalized theory of human behavior in the social psychology literature that can be used to study a wide range of individual behaviors. Different criteria have been proposed by different researchers, the more important of which are listed below: How do researchers build theories? If you are unable to import citations, please contact However, they explain economically, using only a few explanatory variables. Some of these theories have stood the test of time and remain well-accepted today. Stay critical when you use a theory, because theories are subjectively measured. For example, you did poorly on an exam because: (1) you forgot that you had an exam on that day, (2) you arrived late to the exam due to a traffic jam, (3) you panicked midway through the exam, (4) you had to work late the previous evening and could not study for the exam, or even (5) your dog ate your text book. New York: The Free Press. Such approach is often called “grounded theory building”, because the theory is grounded in empirical observations. The latter route is less cognitively demanding, and the routes of attitude change are typically operationalized in the ELM using the argument quality and peripheral cues constructs respectively. Five innovation characteristics are presumed to shape adopters’ innovation adoption decisions: (1) relative advantage: the expected benefits of an innovation relative to prior innovations, (2) compatibility: the extent to which the innovation fits with the adopter’s work habits, beliefs, and values, (3) complexity: the extent to which the innovation is difficult to learn and use, (4) trialability: the extent to which the innovation can be tested on a trial basis, and (5) observability: the extent to which the results of using the innovation can be clearly observed. The presence of theory is an indication of research eminence and respectability [], as well as a feature of discipline’s maturity [19, 20].Theory has been defined in many ways. A total of 28 theories, models and frameworks were identified. I cannot conceive of any empirical research that is not grounded on one or several theoretical frameworks or theories. While strong dominance is found in research focusing on Information Technology (IT) for individuals, organizations and markets, no theoretical dominance is found in IT for groups and IS development. Each theory has helped contribute t… This is also an inductive approach that relies heavily on the inductive abilities of the researcher, and interpretation may be biased by researcher’s prior knowledge of the phenomenon being studied. We do not capture any email address. practice, planning and research and all thinking involves theories. Third, theories provide guidance for future research by helping identify constructs and relationships that are worthy of further research. While there is no unified definition or exhaustive list of theory, it is possible, and in fact important, to derive the commonly featured characteristics of a theory. It presumes that individual behavior represents conscious reasoned choice, and is shaped by cognitive thinking and social pressures. Compounding the nature of the problem may be information asymmetry problems caused by the principal’s inability to adequately observe the agent’s behavior or accurately evaluate the agent’s skill sets. How can we evaluate the “goodness” of a given theory? Individual encounters are an alternate incredible method for getting data for your exploration. The first approach is to build theories inductively based on observed patterns of events or behaviors. Frameworks, Models, and Theories Used in Electronic Health Research and Development to Support Self-Management of Cardiovascular Diseases Through Remote Monitoring Technologies: Protocol for a Metaethnography Review 1 Department of Psychology, Health and Technology, Faculty of Behavioural, Management and Social sciences, Technical Medical Centre, University of Twente, Enschede, … During the process of developing and applying the models, we generated some questions about the current state of theory use in design research. Theories provide complex and comprehensive conceptual understandings of things that cannot be pinned down: how societies work, how organisations operate, why people interact in certain ways. There are several types of research theories. Elaboration Likelihood Model . GDT examines why certain individuals engage in deviant, anti-social, or criminal behaviors. The third approach to theorizing is to extend or modify existing theories to explain a new context, such as by extending theories of individual learning to explain organizational learning. This chapter explains the four characteristics of a theory outlined by Eisenhardt (1989) and Whetten (1989). It also explains why such theories are important for clinicians, for health policy, and for patient care. An employee stock option plans are is an example of an outcome-based contract while employee pay is a behavior-based contract. This theory holds that people are fundamentally rational (for both conforming and deviant behaviors), and that they freely choose deviant behaviors based on a rational cost-benefit calculation. Innovations may include new technologies, new practices, or new ideas, and adopters may be individuals or organizations. Theory can be used to motivate inquiry, contextualize research, shape research questions, and guide methodology and analysis. We will discuss the grounded theory approach in a later chapter on qualitative research. Distinction between theoretical and empirical concepts. One such framework may be a simple input-process-output framework, where the researcher may look for different categories of inputs, such as individual, organizational, and/or technological factors potentially related to the phenomenon of interest (the output), and describe the underlying processes that link these factors to the target phenomenon. This approach relies on reasoning by analogy, and is probably the most creative way of theorizing using a deductive approach. Such a study would aim to elicit, through interviews, the meanings each individual attached to their interactions and the classifications they employed to …. Again, this prediction is called a hypothesis. Theories are designed to be simple and parsimonious explanations, while reality may be significantly more complex. The use of behaviour change theories and techniques in research-informed coach development programmes: a systematic review. Furthermore, variables may be independent, dependent, mediating, or moderating, as discussed in Chapter 2. Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. At the macro (population) level, IDT views innovation diffusion as a process of communication where people in a social system learn about a new innovation and its potential benefits through communication channels (such as mass media or prior adopters) and are persuaded to adopt it. Propositions are stated in declarative form and should ideally indicate a cause-effect relationship (e.g., if X occurs, then Y will follow). Diffusion of Innovations . The way theory is being used in an eclectic way in school effectiveness research This section refers to a recent study by the author on the use of theory in educational effectiveness research … (1991). Theories used in nursing research on smoking cessation Annu Rev Nurs Res. Idiographic explanations are those that explain a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail. However, like constructs, propositions are stated at the theoretical level, and they can only be tested by examining the corresponding relationship between measurable variables of those constructs. A collection of facts is not a theory, just as a pile of stones is not a house. Furthermore, theories may impose blinders or limit researchers’ “range of vision,” causing them to miss out on important concepts that are not defined by the theory. Moreover, streams of IS research constitute distinct clusters of theory usage. Based View and Game Theory to be the three most frequently used theories. As we know from previous chapters, science is knowledge represented as a collection of “theories” derived using the scientific method. List of theoretical frameworks for research studies You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. More formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships between those constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions (Bacharach 1989). These theories explain different types of social behaviors, using a set of constructs, propositions, boundary conditions, assumptions, and underlying logic. While understanding theories, it is also important to understand what theory is not. People in a state of high elaboration likelihood (high ability and high motivation) are more likely to thoughtfully process the information presented and are therefore more influenced by argument quality, while those in the low elaboration likelihood state are more motivated by peripheral cues. Because theories powerfully influence how evidence is collected, analysed, understood and used, Alderson argued that it is both Ward (2014) have argued that the Theories such as interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory can be used to help design a research question, guide the selection of relevant data, interpret the data, and propose explanations of causes or influences Previous articles in this series have addressed several methodologies used in qualitative research. TPB also suggests that sometimes people may intend to perform a given behavior but lack the resources needed to do so, and therefore suggests that posits that behavioral control can have a direct effect on behavior, in addition to the indirect effect mediated by intention. Just as a nuclear explosion requires a critical mass of radioactive material to sustain a nuclear explosion, Markus suggested that a network requires a critical mass of users to sustain its growth, and without such critical mass, users may leave the network, causing an eventual demise of the network. Developed by Petty and Cacioppo (1986) [7], the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a dual-process theory of attitude formation or change in the psychology literature. The theory postulates that behaviors are based on one’s intention regarding that behavior, which in turn is a function of the person’s attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm regarding that behavior, and perception of control over that behavior (see Figure 4.2). The rate of diffusion a lso depends on characteristics of the social system such as the presence of opinion leaders (experts whose opinions are valued by others) and change agents (people who influence others’ behaviors). Research This ability and motivation to elaborate is called elaboration likelihood . Yes, theory should be use in your research. For example, students who do poorly in exams do so because they did not spend adequate time preparing for exams or that they suffer from nervousness, attention-deficit, or some other medical disorder. While making such an extension, certain concepts, propositions, and/or boundary conditions of the old theory may be retained and others modified to fit the new context. Given the nature of their underlying assumptions, economic and political theories are not directly comparable, and researchers should not use economic theories if their objective is to understand the power structure or its evolution in a organization. More formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships between those constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions (Bacharach 1989). Theories used in nursing research on smoking cessation. In addition, theories often used in gender research (e.g., Foucault’s theories of bio power and power and knowledge [], as well as embodiment theories [14, … The fourth approach is to apply existing theories in entirely new contexts by drawing upon the structural similarities between the two contexts. 2009;27:33-62. doi: 10.1891/0739-6686.27.33. I will also discuss why and how these theories are used, and which is the most relevant, or most important. David Whetten (1989) suggests that there are four building blocks of a theory: constructs, propositions, logic, and boundary conditions/assumptions. Note that the following represents just a simplistic introduction to these theories; readers are advised to consult the original sources of these theories for more details and insights on each theory. The latter construct was added by Ajzen in TPB to account for circumstances when people may have incomplete control over their own behaviors (such as not having high-speed Internet access for web surfing). Hypotheses are derived from theories and are submitted to empirical tests for verification and rejection. There are such a large number of spots to head off to use as sources. A lot of theories are mentioned below, make your own judgment Theories should explain why things happen, rather than just describe or predict. 11, … General Deterrence Theory. Because people naturally choose utility-maximizing behaviors, deviant choices that engender personal gain or pleasure can be controlled by increasing the costs of such behaviors in the form of punishments (countermeasures) as well as increasing the probability of apprehension. (1990). Because nomothetic explanations are designed to be generalizable across situations, events, or people, they tend to be less precise, less complete, and less detailed. Constructs capture the “what” of theories (i.e., what concepts are important for explaining a phenomenon), propositions capture the “how” (i.e., how are these concepts related to each other), logic represents the “why” (i.e., why are these concepts related), and boundary conditions/assumptions examines the “who, when, and where” (i.e., under what circumstances will these concepts and relationships work). In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Recall from Chapter 2 that constructs may be unidimensional (i.e., embody a single concept), such as weight or age, or multi-dimensional (i.e., embody multiple underlying concepts), such as personality or culture. (1973). Logic acts like a “glue” that connects the theoretical constructs and provides meaning and relevance to the relationships between these constructs. “Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for Evaluation,” Academy of Management Review (14:4), 496-515. “Toward a ‘Critical Mass’ Theory of Interactive Media: Universal Access, Interdependence, and Diffusion,” Communication Research (14:5), 491-511. IS Research, Methods, and Theories Information Systems Research AIS offers a variety of different resources and services intended to help you as you complete your research in information systems, including a review of different of research methods, journal lists and rankings, and more. A researcher using phenomenology would approach the study of doctor-nurse interprofessional interactions by exploring how individual doctors and nurses made sense of their ward-based interprofessional experiences. Examples in this chapter illus- trate the alternatives available to qualitative researchers. The two parties in this theory are the principal and the agent; the principal employs the agent to perform certain tasks on its behalf. The focus of GDT is not how to rehabilitate criminals and avert future criminal behaviors, but how to make criminal activities less attractive and therefore prevent crimes. 2009; 27:33-62 (ISSN: 0739-6686) O'Connell KA Theories tell how and why things work; how and why one variable is related to another. [7] Petty, R. E., and Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). All adopters are not identical, and adopters can be classified into innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards based on their time of their adoption. Hence, agency theory recommends using outcome-based contracts, such as a commissions or a fee payable upon task completion, or mixed contracts that combine behavior-based and outcome-based incentives. Grand nursing theories are still not widely used. There are four main types of theories we use. Second, they aid in sense-making by helping us synthesize prior empirical findings within a theoretical framework and reconcile contradictory findings by discovering contingent factors influencing the relationship between two constructs in different studies. Theories such as interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory can be used to help design a research question, guide the selection of relevant data, interpret the … When you have picked the subject, then the examination starts. The core assumptions of this theory are that human beings are self-interested individuals, boundedly rational, and risk-averse, and the theory can be applied at the individual or organizational level. Note that it is possible to predict events or beha… Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices. technical support for your product directly (links go to external sites): Thank you for your interest in spreading the word about The BMJ. Prediction requires only correlations. This article discusses the role and use of three theoretical approaches commonly used by qualitative researchers in health domains: interactionism, phenomenology, and critical theory. Propositions are associations postulated between constructs based on deductive logic. For instance, Markus (1987) [3] used analogic similarities between a nuclear explosion and uncontrolled growth of networks or network-based businesses to propose a critical mass theory of network growth. Qualitative inquirers use different terms for theories, such as patterns, theoretical lens, or naturalistic generalizations, to describe the broader explana- tions used or developed in their studies. At the micro (adopter) level, Rogers (1995) [6] suggests that innovation adoption is a process consisting of five stages: (1) knowledge: when adopters first learn about an innovation from mass-media or interpersonal channels, (2) persuasion: when they are persuaded by prior adopters to try the innovation, (3) decision: their decision to accept or reject the innovation, (4) implementation: their initial utilization of the innovation, and (5) confirmation: their decision to continue using it to its fullest potential (see Figure 4.4). Why use theories in qualitative research? Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence based education theories, including cognitive load theory, schema theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval practice. Early adopters are venturesome, well educated, and rely more on mass media for information about the innovation, while later adopters rely more on interpersonal sources (such as friends and family) as their primary source of information. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. As such, there can be good explanations or poor explanations, and consequently, there can be good theories or poor theories. [1]. Note that propositions may be conjectural but MUST be testable, and should be rejected if they are not supported by empirical observations. Though constructs and propositions were previously discussed in Chapter 2, we describe them again here for the sake of completeness. Annu Rev Nurs Res. Although theoretical frameworks tend to be used in quantitative studies, you will also see this approach in qualitative research. “The Theory Imperative,” in Organizations and Communications Technology , J. Fulk and C. W. Steinfield (eds. In this section, we present brief overviews of a few illustrative theories from different social science disciplines. Throughout psychology's history, a number of theories have been proposed to explain and predict various aspects of human behavior. Research Models used to describe the overall framework used to look at reality, based on a philosophical stance eg. As simplified explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations of the phenomenon of interest based on a limited set of constructs and relationships. Constructs are abstract concepts specified at a high level of abstraction that are chosen specifically to explain the phenomenon of interest. Please note: your email address is provided to the journal, which may use this information for marketing purposes. In addition, theories often used in gender research (e.g., Foucault’s theories of bio power and power and knowledge [13], as well as embodiment theories [14, 15]) were included when the focus of the paper was on New ideas, and consequently, there can be good theories or poor.... Recommend four such approaches ( 1986 ) such a large number of theories we use shown in Figure,. Explanations are those that explain a class of situations or events rather than just describe predict... Also represents the “explanation” that lies at the core of a given theory and humanities to guide their research and. An employee stock option plans are is an example of an outcome-based contract while employee pay theories used in research situational... In is were found to be the three most frequently used theories of... Adopters may be conjectural but MUST be testable, and Cacioppo, J. T. ( 1986.... Is an example of an outcome-based contract while employee pay is a democratic process, both... 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